Regardless of where you teach, you will encounter many manifestations of student diversity
in your classroom. The goal of this chapter is to help you build a framework to better
understand the many sources of diversity in the classroom and to develop an open
mind when interpreting students’ thinking and behavior. Some teachers may believe
that using a package of good teaching techniques can promote the learning of all
students. However, expert teachers know that students differ in many fundamental ways
that affect how they learn. Effective teachers will adapt their teaching to reach every
student. Each one of your students will have an identity that is the product of his/her
past experiences, abilities, personality, gender, social class, nationality, ethnicity, and
religion. You will also bring your own identity to the classroom, including your professional
knowledge and skills. Your task, as a teacher, will be to understand and connect
with a roomful of diverse students and use your expertise to help them develop the
knowledge and skills they need to succeed in our society. Today’s teachers are likely to
find classrooms as diverse as Ms. Branson’s. Although the specific numbers will vary
depending on where you teach, in the average U.S. classroom approximately 50% of
students are girls and 50% boys, 40% of students are in free or reduced lunch programs,
20% are English language learners, and 13% are in special education programs
(National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2006; U.S. Department of Education,
2008). To help organize our discussion of diversity, this chapter is divided into three
sections: group differences, individual differences, and student exceptionalities. Group differences are the ways in which one group of people may be different from
another group. For example, people from Russia have different characteristics (e.g., customs,
values, dress code) than people from China or Cuba. Group differences include
differences in culture, ethnicity, language, socioeconomic status (SES), and gender. Keep
in mind that individuals belong to several groups at the same time. For instance, a person
can be Hispanic American, female, and of high SES simultaneously and feel different
degrees of identification with each one of these groups. Remember also that the
uniqueness of all human beings stems from the great variation that is found within any
group of reference. For example, compare yourself to a friend that you know well and
who shares many group identifiers with you, such as someone of your same gender, ethnicity,
and social class. Now think about the many ways in which you and your friend
are different from each other. You will soon realize that group identification can only
give teachers very broad clues about their students’ thinking and behavior.
There are also many individual differences (which are discussed in the next section
of this chapter). In sum, the information presented in this section is not intended
to help you predict any particular student behavior or thinking but rather to make you
aware of group differences that may affect students’ learning and performance. The
challenge is to keep the information presented in this section in mind without assuming
that all students from a particular group will display the typical or average patterns
found by research (not all children from Asian countries are good at math, for example).
It’s important not to reinforce a stereotype, a rigid, overly simplistic, and inevitably
inaccurate representation of any particular group of individuals. Expert teachers never
assume that a particular student will think or behave in a manner that is expected for
his/her gender, culture, or SES but rather view each student as a unique individual
and use what they know about group differences to help explain why students learn
differently in school.
Cultural, Ethnic, and Racial Diversity
Culture is a term that describes the knowledge, attitudes, values, and behaviors that characterize
a group of people. It can be thought of as a schema or blueprint that guides
the thinking and behavior of a group, including the ways to dress, work, play, and communicate
verbally and nonverbally with others. Cultures are subject to change over time,
especially when cultural groups come into contact with others (Lee, 1999; Rogoff,
2003). For example, the daily diet of many Europeans today includes potatoes, tomatoes,
and chocolate. However, these food sources were unknown to Europeans until the
16th century, when they came in contact with the Native American cultures. Likewise,
when speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to
influence each other. For instance, the Romanian language was influenced by the Slavic
languages spoken by neighboring tribes after the fall of the Roman Empire.
A major determinant of the culture in which people grow up is ethnicity, a term
that refers to their common place of origin. Ethnic groups share a sense of interdependence
due to the fact that they are comprised of people of the same race, national
origin, or religious background (NCSS Task Force on Ethnic Studies Curriculum
Guidelines, 1992). For instance, since 2000, U.S. census respondents have been allowed
to identify their ethnicity as being Hispanic or Latino, a category that includes “a person
of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, South or Central American, or other Spanish
culture or origin, regardless of race” (Office of Management and Budget, 1997). Ethnic
groups may be made up of subgroups with distinctive characteristics. For instance, there
are significant differences in appearance, customs, and beliefs among Hispanics who
may distinguish themselves as Chicano, Mexicano, of Mexican descent, or of Spanish
descent (Losey, 1995). Race is the category of people who share biologically transmitted
traits such as skin color or hair texture (Macionis, 2006). However, there are no
biologically pure races and, depending on the definition, people identify between 3
and 300 different races (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993). In fact, the original U.S. census in 1790 had only three racial categories: white, black, and
Indian. However, since 2000, census respondents are allowed
to indicate their racial identity by selecting one or more of the
following six categories: American Indian or Alaska Native;
Asian; black or African-American; Native Hawaiian or other
Pacific Islander; white; and other.
Today’s classrooms are likely to have a wide array of cultural,
ethnic, and racial diversity among students. Teachers need to
understand that ethnicity cannot be judged on the basis of physical
characteristics (white skin or brown skin, for example) or
birthplace (Korea, Chile, or the United States) alone but rather
by learning about the extent to which students participate in various
cultural and ethnic-group activities (Gutierrez & Rogoff,
2003; Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995). Depending on their background,
students may participate actively in two or more cultures
(A. M. Lopez, 2003a; Root, 1999). For instance, in one study, over
a third of the students in a public high school in California
reported being of mixed heritage and identified with more than one cultural background
(A. M. Lopez, 2003b).
Because most schools in the United States are based largely on European-American,
middle-SES culture, also known as mainstream culture, students matching this cultural
background will be those who adapt easily to the classroom environment. The larger
the difference between students’ home culture and the mainstream culture, the more
likely they will experience some type of culture shock, a term used to describe the anxiety
and confusion felt when people have to operate within an entirely different cultural
or social environment, such as a foreign country. Culture shock can threaten students’
adjustment to school and achievement (Casanova, 1987; Ramsey, 1987), especially when
there is a cultural mismatch between the teacher and the student, because teachers are
likely to misinterpret ethnic minority behaviors by viewing the world from their own cultural
frame of mind (Ogbu, 1992). Although this is understandable, it may lead teachers
to unfairly judge students’ cultural practices as less desirable or inferior. The next
sections describe some examples of cultural diversity to help you become more aware
of the potential differences in your students’ thinking and behavior. Keep in mind that
there is significant variation within ethnic groups. One of the skills of a reflective practitioner
is to carefully consider individual differences when interpreting students’ verbal
and nonverbal behavior and to avoid forming stereotypes about any group. Before
reading any further, look at the photo on this page and take a few minutes to reflect on
your beliefs about ethnic and cultural differences.
Language Differences. Perhaps the most obvious cultural difference is students’ language
background. The number of native student languages (other than English) in U. S.
school districts ranges from 1 to 119, with the average number of languages represented
in individual districts being 8 (Hopstock & Stephenson, 2003). Recall from Chapter 1
that 8% of public school students speak little or no English at home (NCES, 2006). Even
when English is spoken at home, students may speak dialects, which are special forms of
English with distinctive pronunciations and grammatical structures. Dialects are usually
the preferred way to communicate in the everyday life of a cultural group and are considered
to be part of group identity (McAlpine, 1992; Ogbu, 1999). An example is African-
American Vernacular English, also known as Black English or Ebonics.
Teachers may find it difficult to perceive speakers of other dialects in the same
positive light as those students who speak Standard English, the form of the English
language that is thought to be the norm for educated speakers (Gollnick & Chinn,
2002). The attitude a teacher displays toward students whose first language is not
English or who speak a dialect of English shapes how these students perceive
school and how they are supported (or not) as learners (Gupta, 1999). Respecting
a student’s first language is essential for building a solid classroom community.
Experts argue that it is very important to clearly communicate with students about when it is appropriate for them to use Standard English or their first language.
Teachers must communicate their expectations and their rationale (Pugach, 2006).
Because success in mainstream society is facilitated when adults have good
Standard English proficiency, ideally, students should be encouraged to develop
and use both, depending on the communication context and purpose (Casanova,
1987; Ogbu, 1999). We discuss different ways to instruct students with varying language
needs in the upcoming section on language diversity.
Communication Differences. Regardless of the language used, different cultural and
ethnic groups have diverse verbal and nonverbal communication practices. For
instance, although mainstream culture is characterized by frequent talking and filling
up of silent spaces with small talk, many Native American and aboriginal cultures place
great value on silence (Basso, 1972; Popat & Dinnage, 2006; Trawick-Smith, 2003). In
some cases, excessive talking can even be interpreted as a sign of immaturity or lower
intelligence, such as in many Japanese communities and the Inuit culture (Crago, 1988;
Minami & McCabe, 1996). Mexican-American, Southeast Asian, and African-American
cultures in the southeast part of the country and many Puerto Ricans, Mexican-
Americans, and Native Americans in the United States teach children not to engage
in adult conversations unless their participation is solicited (Delgado-Gaitan, 1994;
Grant & Gomez, 2001; Hidalgo, Siu, Bright, Swap, & Epstein, 1995; Lomawaima, 1995).
In addition, the mainstream classroom practice of interacting by asking students questions
to evaluate their understanding may be unfamiliar in some cultures or even run
against their expectations. This is the case of people from some African-American and
Mexican cultures, who consider asking questions to be appropriate only when the initiator
does not know the answer to the question (Losey, 1995; Rogoff, 2003). Another
source of cultural diversity comes from the amount of wait time, the time given to
respond to a question. According to research, teachers’ typical wait time is a second
(Rowe, 1987). When no answer is produced quickly, they either provide the answer
themselves or call on another student. However, some cultures express their respect
for others by giving significant time to respond to a question (Gilliland, 1999; Grant
& Gomez, 2001; Tharp, 1989). As you will learn in Chapter 6, it is important that teachers
leave enough wait time for students’ responses not only because of the potential
cultural differences in this regard but also as an effective method to engage them in
deeper thinking.
In some cultures, it is inappropriate for children to make eye contact with an adult
who speaks to them (Gilliland, 1999; Irujo, 1988; Torres-Guzman, 1998). Therefore,
teachers should be careful to not quickly judge lack of eye contact as a sign of passive
listening or disrespect. This nonverbal behavior could signify quite the opposite.
Likewise, depending on the culture, interrupting rather than taking turns to speak may
be an acceptable way to communicate. For example in some African-American, Puerto
Rican, and Jewish families, adults and children speak simultaneously, presumably
because waiting for one’s turn can exclude the person from the conversation (Condon
& Yousef, 1975; Hale-Benson, 1986; Slonim, 1991).
Cooperation versus Competition Differences. Because most classrooms emphasize
individual performance, this may lead to competition among students (see Figure 2.1).
As you will learn in Chapter 9, motivation experts discourage competitiveness in the
classroom, which is found to detract from students’ intrinsic motivation to learn
(Wentzel, 1999). A competitive orientation can be especially detrimental to cultures
that emphasize cooperation such as some Mexican-American, Native American, South
Asian, and Pacific Island groups (Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2005; McDevitt & Ormrod,
2004). In these cultures, children are taught the value of group rather than individual
achievement; consequently, students will be more likely to feel comfortable working
with others, helping one another on assignments, or sharing knowledge (Deyhle
& Margonis, 1995; Lipka with Mohatt & the Ciulistet Group, 1998; Rogoff, 2003). If
criticized for sharing their work with peers (which many mainstream teachers misinterpret
as “cheating”) or made to compete rather than cooperate with their peers, these students may rebel or withdraw from further attempts to succeed in school (Grossman, 1990; McIntyre, 1996). Research finds that these students will also respond more positively to praise that is focused on their family, community, or cooperative learning group rather than on their individual accomplishments
(Bennett, 1999; Vasquez, 1990). For instance, Mr. Duncan is reviewing the progress of one of
his reading groups. He brings together all group members and says, “I am very pleased
with your work. You are all working really well together. You have read five stories and
increased your vocabulary by 20 words. That is a lot of improvement in just two weeks!
Congratulations!”
Time Orientation. American mainstream culture is very time oriented. Children are taught
to monitor and make the most out of their time, and individuals who are better time managers
and work efficiently are rewarded by society. Typical classrooms also reflect this
orientation by having a set schedule, with starting and ending times for each class, project, or
activity, and establishing deadlines to turn in homework, papers, and other assignments.
However, for some cultures, this view may be limiting, rigid, or even upsetting (Bennett,
1999). For instance, Principal Nez is a Navajo
woman who strives to help her non-Navajo teachers understand the traditions and
worldviews of her community. At Eagle Rock Middle School, 98% of the students are
Navajo. Ms. Smith, a recently hired sixth-grade teacher from the Teach for America
program (www.teachforamerica.org), is having her first meeting with Principal Nez to
learn more about her future students. Among the many helpful tips, the principal offers
the following: Use time frames for turning in work instead of due dates (e.g., accept
papers from September 23 to 29 rather than have papers due on September 25); give
students partial credit for completing work within a reasonable delay (e.g., establish a
penalty of 10% of the grade for finishing an assignment after three days from the deadline);
and, when possible, allow students to work at their own pace.
Family and Worldviews. Although most cultures value school achievement highly and
parents encourage their children to do well at school, for some cultural groups, family
needs may take precedence over academic needs (Duran & Weffer, 1992; Goldenberg,
Gallimore, Reese, & Garnier, 2001; Yee, 1992). Therefore, it is not unusual to observe
students in many Hispanic, Native American, and Asian communities to leave school when
their family requires their assistance (Banks & Banks, 2004; Fuligni, 1998). Additional conflict
between academic values and cultural values may arise for students from traditional
Native American culture, as they are expected to participate in the ceremonies of their
community and develop art, dance, and other traditional skills (Kirschenbaum, 1989; Reid,
1989). For instance, tenth-grader Takoda is torn. His mom just called to tell him that his
grandfather died and that his family will be going to the reservation for the Keeping of
the Soul ceremonies. Takoda knows that this means missing the next two weeks of school
and midterm exams. He feels that he has to honor his grandfather and family, but he is
worried about how he will make up for missed schoolwork and tests, and he is afraid to
lose his spot on the basketball team for missing so much practice.
Finally, students may not only show differences in their behaviors but will have different
beliefs and assumptions about the world. For instance, depending on their culture,
children will believe that hurricanes are the result of natural forces or believe that
they are a consequence of people’s actions or supernatural forces, as illustrated by the
following example (Lee, 1999). In Mrs. Fredricks’s social studies class, they are discussing
the increase in hurricanes over the last three years and the impact this has had
on coastal societies. Mrs. Fredricks explains, “Scientists believe that the oceans are getting
warmer. This means that there is more heat in the atmosphere for these large
storms to grow, making stronger hurricanes and more hurricanes. If this is true, what
do you think the future holds for coastal cities?” Tamara replies, “I don’t think that is
true. My dad told me that the hurricanes are sent by God. He said that Katrina was a
message from God reminding us that we need to be good. If people were good, hurricanes
would not happen.” As you see, the different worldviews that students bring to
the classroom will affect the ways they interpret what is taught.
Approaches to Teaching in the Culturally Diverse Classroom
During the 1960s and 1970s, educators felt that minority students were having problems
at school because they were not assimilated into mainstream American culture,
whereas many ethnic groups expressed their interest in maintaining their culture and
identity and rejected the idea of becoming completely assimilated into the mainstream
culture. During that time, students were described as “disadvantaged” or
“handicapped,” and a cultural deficit model was used to explain the achievement gap
as the result of a home culture that failed to prepare them to succeed academically.
The term achievement gap is commonly used to describe the difference in academic
achievement between African-American or Latino students and white, middle-SES students.
Because the cultural deficit model focuses on what students and their families
do not have or cannot do, teachers who take that approach are likely to interact differently
with diverse students. For instance, they may call on them less frequently
during discussions, give them less time to construct responses to questions, identify and correct
misbehaviors more frequently and more harshly, give them lower grades, engage in less
informal talk, and fail to establish close relationships with their families (Pugach, 2006). Nieto
(2004) points out that most teachers do not adopt a deficit model consciously, yet, once the
low expectations for cultural minority students have been set, the result can be a self-fulfilling
prophecy: Low-expectation minority students perform poorly and confirm the teacher’s original
bias against them. Today, most educators reject the cultural
deficit model. Some well-intentioned teachers take a “neutral” position, claiming that they
“don’t see color” in their classroom and treat all students as individuals (Paley, 2000). The problem
with this view is that all students have a color (white is a color, too!) that is central to their life
experiences and affects how they make sense of the world. By ignoring color or cultural diversity
in the classroom, teachers take an easy way out and free themselves from reflecting on issues
they may find uncomfortable. Others, instead, value the assets of different cultural communities
and believe that culturally diverse students can maintain their cultural identity while still being
successful in school (see figure 2.2). Therefore, they are committed to learn about the differences
among their students and use this knowledge to create the conditions in which all have
the opportunity to achieve well. This approach will be most important if you work with students
who belong to a cultural, linguistic, or socioeconomic group that is different from your own. By
acknowledging that each one of your students is a unique individual with distinctive strengths and
connecting your teaching to their experiences, you can play an important role in narrowing the
achievement gap across ethnic and socioeconomic lines. One approach that was born from the need
to respond to the increasing diversity of the student population and the need to offer equal
opportunity to all students is multicultural education. Multicultural education is not a specific educational
program but rather “a wide variety of programs and practices related to educational equity, women, ethnic groups, language minorities, low-income groups, and people with disabilities” (Banks & Banks, 2007, p.
7). Figure 2.3 shows the five dimensions of multicultural education according to Banks
and Banks (2007). The ultimate goal of this approach is to help students develop the
knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function within their culture, other cultures,
and the global community.
There is no best approach to creating a multicultural classroom but rather quality
practices have been recognized to help reduce racism, sexism, and prejudice while providing
equal opportunities to learn for all students. For example, Ladson-Billings (1990,
1992, 1995) uses the term culturally relevant pedagogy to describe the practices of exemplar
teachers who served an African-American community in California. The basic principles
of culturally relevant pedagogy are the following:
1. Learners must experience academic success.
2. Learners must maintain their cultural competence.
3. Learners must develop a broad sociopolitical consciousness to be able to critique
the social norms, values, and institutions that produce and maintain social
inequities.
Gay (2000) describes an approach called culturally responsive teaching consisting of
using the “cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance
styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant
to and effective for them” (p. 29). Teachers can find a massive reservoir of instructional
materials and pedagogies about how to implement multicultural education in the
classroom on the National Association for Multicultural Education website (http://www.nameorg.org). Effective multicultural educators strive to know their students
through interaction and exploration, examine their own attitudes and beliefs
about cultural diversity, resist the tendency to make judgments about students’
behaviors when these are in conflict with their own, and help students develop the
same sensitivity toward each other. A synthesis of the characteristics of effective multicultural
teachers is presented in Table 2.1 (Garcia, 1999).
Even when classrooms do not include students from different ethnic backgrounds,
teachers will still need to address conflict, differences, and biases about ethnic
groups not represented in the classroom (Pugach, 2006). Teachers can
include in the curriculum multiple perspectives on knowledge and the role of
social justice. Teachers who work in monocultural white schools may need to decide
which perspectives on history or social sciences will be discussed and be prepared to
address students’ responses, especially when they disclose misconceptions or
biases. For example, Mr. Costello, an American history teacher in a monocultural white school, has decided to discuss the
role of the Buffalo Soldiers, primarily black military units serving from 1866 to 1948.
After reading a passage describing their history, he asks the students to compare how
black soldiers’ experience may have differed from that of white soldiers.
“Well, I think the black soldiers should consider themselves lucky because they didn’t
have to fight in the trenches in Europe. They got to hang back and supply the troops
with what they needed. No one was shooting at them,” Jenny responded.
“Maybe, but that wasn’t what they were trained to do, right? Is that fair?”
Mr. Costello prompted.
“I guess it’s not fair, but at least they got to serve their country. Isn’t that what they
wanted to do?” Jenny asked.
Tom responds, “But they were trained to do much more than that, and the only
reason they weren’t allowed is because of their skin color. Its kinda like training eight
years to be a doctor and then being told you can’t really practice medicine because
your hair is curly. Plus, they didn’t get to be officers. Also, they died serving like the
white soldiers but they didn’t get their medals and recognition.”
As you see, teachers who work in monocultural minority schools will also need to
be prepared to discuss issues of equity, prejudice, and bias because social issues are likely
to permeate the classroom conversation. In sum, regardless of having or not having
culturally diverse students in their classroom, teachers have the responsibility to work
with their students to achieve a more harmonious and tolerant society.
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