Intelligence

There is no consensus on what intelligence means. Some experts define intelligence
as problem-solving ability. Others describe it as the ability to adapt to and learn from
life’s everyday experiences. Still others believe that intelligence is the ability to think
in the abstract (Sattler, 2001). The concept of intelligence has been discussed since the
ancient Greeks. However, its scientific study started with the work of Alfred Binet, who
was asked by the French government to develop a measure that could identify children
with special education needs. Binet devised the first intelligence test, which yields an
overall intelligence quotient (IQ), a global index of people’s intelligence, plus individual
scores on ability subtests (e.g., memory, spatial ability, vocabulary). In Chapter 13,
we discuss the most common individual and group tests of intelligence, which are considered
to be general aptitude tests for school learning.

Single-Trait Intelligence Theory. One of the biggest problems in defining intelligence
arises when experts are asked whether intelligence is a general aptitude. Binet’s work
began to establish the idea that intelligence is a general trait. Likewise, Charles
Spearman (1927) believed that intelligence is a single trait that people have in varying
degrees. Spearman called this trait general intelligence, or g. Although various
intelligent tests yield somewhat different scores, research supports the single-trait
theory of intelligence by showing that scores in all subtests tend to be correlated
(Brody, 2007; Carroll, 1993). However, Cattell (1987) found that general intelligence
is better understood by distinguishing two components: fluid intelligence, the ability
to reason and process information quickly, and crystallized intelligence, the knowledge
and skills acquired by learning and experience. General intelligence test scores
are strong predictors of academic achievement and moderately predict work performance
(Lubinski, 2000). More recently, theorists have developed multitrait theories
of intelligence. We discuss two of the most common theories next.

Gardner’sMultiple Intelligences Theory. After analyzing people’s performance in several
domains, Howard Gardner (1983) concluded that there are eight different types
of human intelligence. Table 2.4 lists each one with its corresponding definition. The
attractiveness of Gardner’s theory is that it makes intuitive sense because we all have
experience with people (including ourselves) being better at some skills than others.
On the other hand, there are serious criticisms of Gardner’s theory. First, experts
note that the research base to support the theory is not yet developed. Second, the
intelligence types proposed seem arbitrary. Why eight intelligences? Gardner (1999)
himself has later added a ninth, existential type of intelligence. And what is the evidence
in support of the idea that these intelligences are independent? For instance,
spatial and logical-mathematical abilities are strongly correlated (Sattler, 2001). Until
these questions are answered, Gardner’s theory is not likely to be accepted within the
scientific community. Educators, on the other hand, have embraced the theory, presumably
because one of its implications is that by using a variety of instructional methods,
teachers can capitalize on students’ diverse abilities (Gardner, 2000). A similar
phenomenon occurs with the theory of emotional intelligence, which is defined as the ability to effectively recognize and manage our own emotions and those of others
(Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Cobb, 2000). Despite its intuitive appeal, it is not clear
whether emotional intelligence is a distinct type of intelligence, a personality trait,
or just general intelligence applied to a particular domain: social relationships
(Eysenck, 1998; Landy, 2005; Locke, 2005).

Sternberg’s Triarchic Intelligence Theory. Robert Sternberg (2003), another multitrait
theorist, suggests that intelligence is made up of three dimensions—hence the
name, triarchic intelligence:
1. An analytical dimension, which is the ability to think abstractly and process information,
similar to more traditional intelligence definitions
2. A creative dimension, which involves the ability to deal with novel situations effectively
by turning new solutions into automatic processes that require little cognitive
effort
3. A practical dimension, which is the ability to deal with everyday tasks, including
adapting to the environment and/or changing the environment
Sternberg believes that people’s intelligence can be enhanced by providing them
with opportunities to think analytically, creatively, and practically. Similar to Gardner’s
theory, there is no strong research support for Sternberg’s triarchic theory to date.
Experts have argued that the vagueness of the theory makes it difficult to be empirically
tested (Sattler, 2001; Siegler, 1998).