WHAT MAKES AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER?

The previous sections have focused on the important roles that educational psychology
theory and research play on guiding teachers’ decision-making processes and action
research. This section examines in more detail the different sources of professional knowledge
that teachers draw from and the specific skills that make up effective teachers.

Professional Knowledge

Content Knowledge. First, teachers must know the subject matter that they intend to
teach, also known as content knowledge. Effective teachers know their subject matter
extremely well (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Windschitl, 2002). Some studies suggest that
strong subject matter knowledge, typically measured as having a major that is relevant to the field to be taught, is associated with teacher effectiveness and having a
master’s degree in the field contributes more to teacher effectiveness than
having a master’s degree in a different field (Goldhaber & Brewer, 1998;
2000; Wenglinsky, 2002). In most institutions, teachers learn content knowledge
through courses in the disciplinary fields (e.g., math, science).
Pedagogical Knowledge. Although necessary, well-developed content
knowledge is not sufficient to make someone a good teacher. Otherwise,
all experts in any domain would be good teachers by definition, and that
is not the case. In fact, many experts lack the ability to verbalize the knowledge
and skills that they have developed over time (Bereiter &
Scardamalia, 1993). Thus, in addition to content knowledge, it is necessary
to have general pedagogical knowledge, an understanding of principles
of learning, development, classroom management, motivation, and
assessment that can be used across content domains (Shulman, 1987).
General pedagogical knowledge is typically learned in educational psychology
courses such as this one. For instance, you will soon learn that
effective teachers are aware that students make rather than take new information.
This learning principle was derived from many years of research
and suggests that it will be most effective to promote learning by using
methods where students are actively engaged in the meaning-making
process, such as experimenting, reflecting, or collaborating in groups with
the guidance of the teacher (Henson, 2004; Ornstein, Lasley, & Mindes,
2005). Research shows that new teachers who had coursework in learning
and development principles are more than twice as likely to stay in the
teaching profession than those who did not (National Commission on
Teaching and America’s Future, 2003).
In addition to having general pedagogic knowledge, which is knowledge
that can be applied to any subject, teachers also need to develop pedagogical content
knowledge, teaching strategies that are specific to the content to be taught. For
example, a chemistry teacher demonstrates pedagogical content knowledge when using
visual representations such as molecular diagrams or models as part of her pedagogy.
Effective teachers have a large repertoire of strategies for teaching a variety of subjects
(Borko & Putnam, 1996; Cochran & Jones, 1998; Shulman, 1986). A longitudinal study
of American youth using more than 2,800 students found that the amount of coursework
completed in subject matter methods courses was positively related to student
achievement gains (Monk, 1994). Another study found that the number of courses a
teacher had taken in mathematics methods was more strongly correlated to student
math performance than the number of courses the teacher had taken in mathematics
content (Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000). However, research also finds that content and
pedagogical content knowledge need to be combined to make teaching most effective
(Loughran, Mulhall, & Berry, 2004; Segall, 2004).
Knowledge about Learners. Effective teaching requires significant knowledge about
the numerous ways in which learners think and behave depending on their unique
characteristics. Teachers should know how to plan instruction that is developmentally
appropriate for students of different ages (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005;
Horowitz et al., 2005), and they should be sensitive to the needs of students from diverse
backgrounds (Bennett, 2007; Diaz, Pelletier, & Provenzo, 2006; Okagaki, 2006). The
next three chapters will help you gain valuable knowledge about learners. Specifically,
they will describe the role that a student’s developmental age, gender, language and
cultural background, and abilities play in learning; they will also provide you with useful
strategies to help all students learn effectively.
Knowledge about Curriculum. Even when teachers are provided with instructional
materials such as textbooks for their classrooms, they need to know what to teach based
on the guidelines developed by national, state, and local standards. Knowledge about
curriculum, including standards and benchmarks for each content area, will allow the teacher to make important instructional decisions including the selection of materials,
the design and sequencing of tasks based on students’ learning needs, and how to assess
students’ learning.

Professional Skills

Whereas professional knowledge is all the information that you have learned about
teaching and learning, professional skill is the ability to use that knowledge effectively
and readily in the classroom. Remember that a teacher might have read many books
and journal articles about classroom management (knowledge), but if he is very disorganized
or hasn’t developed effective classroom routines (skills), then he won’t be
a very effective teacher for his students. Effective teachers demonstrate skills in several
areas including planning, communication, motivation, classroom management, assessment,
and technology. Let’s examine each of these skills.
Planning Skills. Teachers need to set a variety of learning goals and organize plans
for reaching those goals (Blumenfeld, Marx, & Harris, 2006). As teachers plan instruction,
they consider when and how instruction should occur, what activities students
should do, and the types of assessments that can be used to evaluate students’ learning.
Planning requires the combination of all professional knowledge types discussed in the
prior section, including good knowledge of curriculum, subject matter, content pedagogical
knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, and knowledge of learners.
Communication Skills. Imagine the following scenario. Ms. Blight is having a meeting
with Joe because he has been acting out for the fourth time this week in class. When
Ms. Blight asks Joe to explain the reason for his misbehavior, he responds, “You hate
me!” Ms. Blight responds, “Where did you get that idea? I do not feel that way at all.
In fact, I think that you are a funny, likeable guy, although undisciplined.” Joe responds,
“I just know you hate me. You glare at me; at least you don’t look nice at me like you
look at the others. You never ask me how I am doing when I walk in. You never smile
at me. And when you talk to me, you cross your arms like you’re my dad or something.”
This example illustrates the relationship between the ways that teachers communicate
and students’ learning and behavior. In this case, Ms. Blight unintentionally communicated
to Joe that she did not like him. Teachers need to be good verbal and nonverbal
communicators. Effective teachers speak clearly, actively listen to students and
parents, interpret students’ body language, and constructively resolve conflicts in the
classroom. They also have assertive rather than passive or hostile communication styles
and work to improve students’ communication skills (Powell & Caseau, 2004).
Motivation Skills. Effective teachers give students the opportunity to think about their
personal interests and goals and use strategies to help them become self-motivated and
responsible for their own learning (Anderman & Wolters, 2006). In addition, teachers
with good motivation skills set high standards for all students yet adjust the level of challenge
and support to different ability levels to ensure that every child becomes motivated
to succeed (Wigfield, Byrnes, & Eccles, 2006). For example, a third-grade reading
teacher might expect a gifted student to understand stories at the fifth-grade level, an
average student to understand stories at the third-grade level, and a student with a learning
disability in reading to understand stories at the second-grade level. To promote
motivation to learn, she should assign each student a story that is challenging for their
respective comprehension level rather than assign a story that is at the average grade
level. Assignments that are too hard or too easy can be frustrating and hurt students’
motivation. Teachers can also promote motivation in the classroom by modeling their
own excitement to learn and the value of learning. We will discuss motivation theories,
research, and classroom applications in Chapters 9 and 10.
Classroom Management Skills. Consider the following scenario: A teacher is trying
to start a science lesson. She raises her voice for attention and gestures frantically as
students leave their seats to sharpen pencils, retrieve their science journals, or ask friends for help. One student asks in frustration, “What are we supposed to be doing?”
The time the teacher has allotted for science is half over before the lesson even begins!
As you will learn when you read Chapter 11, teachers need to manage their classrooms
to create a successful, orderly environment that is conducive to learning. To this end,
effective teachers use a repertoire of strategies for developing classroom rules and procedures,
monitoring and preventing misbehavior, and intervening when discipline
problems arise (Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham, 2006).
Assessment Skills. When you read Chapters 12 and 13, you will learn that effective
teachers regularly assess the knowledge and skills of their students with a variety of formal
and informal methods (McMillan, 2007). Formal assessments include students’ presentations,
quizzes, project assignments, and state-mandated tests. Teachers also use
informal assessments, such as portfolios of student work, student journals, and examination
of students’ questions, comments, and behaviors during classroom and group
activities. This set of skills includes the planning, development, administration, evaluation,
and revision of classroom assessments and the administration and evaluation of
commercially made tests.
Technology Skills. Effective teachers also have well-developed technological skills and
critically evaluate the potential of technology before integrating computers into their
classrooms (Cruz & Duplass, 2007; Sawyer, 2006). When you read the final chapter of
this book, you will realize that technology itself does not promote students’ learning
(Moreno, 2006). For technology-based instruction to improve learning there are some
conditions that must be met. Among these conditions are the following:
• The design of technology should be based on theories of learning and
motivation.
• Teachers need to be skilled in the use of technology.
• Technology should be embedded in learner-centered classrooms, where students
are given opportunities to actively construct knowledge and skills (Bereiter &
Scardamalia, 2006; Berson, Crum, Duplass, & Johnston, 2007; Bitter & Legacy,
2006).